In many places, fish and shellfish are the only readily available sources of protein that people can self-harvest, often throughout the year. This paper looks at a number of possible scenarios relating to future protein demand for human consumption, discusses factors influencing this demand and outlines some strategies to respond to the expected increased demand. In addition, meat is a key source of, often highly bioavailable, minerals (iron, zinc, and selenium) and vitamins (A, B9&12, D, and E), and has an ability, referred to as the meat factor, to enhance iron availability from other sources [39,40]. Mini reviewPredicting the effect of brown algal phlorotannins on marine herbivores in tropical and temperate oceans. They have functional properties and health benefits that are supported by scientific/medical studies, making them a suitable nutritional base for other foods. There are some concerns that vegans, or diet containing plant proteins as the major source of protein, are nutrient deficient due to unbalanced protein sources [59]. A typical coal power plant will have 10-12% CO 2 concentration in its flue gas exhaust stream. There are many strategies are available to respond to growing global protein demand which span technological advancements, changes in the agri-food system and shifts in consumption patterns. Japan and China also supply these microalgae but there are some concerns regarding toxins, microbial load and other sanitary issues concerning their production. Evolution in protein consumption per capita (g/capita/day). UN figures projecting global population growth of almost 50% since 2000 to 9.5 billion by 2050 [1] seem to be generally accepted. Recently, a group in Oregon developed red seaweed, vegan bacon-tasting alternative to bacon. Minor components of pulses and their potential impact on human health. Scenarios 1 to 3 assume maintenance of current consumption patterns for the existing population of 7.3 billion but have different assumptions for the additional 2.3 billion people that the UN project will exist. The WRAP report states that ensuring the UK has a diversified, sustainable and healthy supply of protein will be one of the defining challenges of the coming decades. Accessibility Singh U., Singh B. Furthermore, new research on the benefits of protein beyond muscle development and maintenance, for example research on the impact of protein on satiety and weight management [9] and more recently on hunger stimulation in hunger-suppressed individuals such as the elderly, continues to emerge, further stimulating increased demand. While insects are an established part of food culture in some countries and are eaten out of choice, there is evidence of some reluctance by Western consumers to accept insects as food as they are often considered as pests, and a source of contamination, and thus to be avoided. (B) In 2030, the International Energy Agency estimates that 29% of liquid fuels will originate from current conventional oil sources, 57% will be from undeveloped or unidentified conventional oil sources Borello M., Caracciolo F., Lombardi A., Pascucci S., Cembalo L. Consumer perspective on circular economy strategy for reducing waste. 11/F/043) supported by the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM) under the National Development Plan20072013 funded by the Irish Government. However, the low cell density is a major bottleneck in commercial viability of many microalgae derived 9. Nutritional applications for different stages of life from infants to elderly will develop in parallel with population and economic development. Evaluation of their flour functionality. Password requirements: 6 to 30 characters long; ASCII characters only (characters found on a standard US keyboard); must contain at least 4 different symbols; Take that, conventional biofuel crops! Notwithstanding long traditions of domestication of bees and silk worms, and the practice of rearing insects for biological control, health and pollination [72] commercial insect farming for food purposes is only beginning to evolve, largely in proximity to concentrations of consumers. Furthermore, positive environmental impacts cannot be assumed with novel protein sources and care must be taken to ensure that comparisons between novel and existing protein sources are valid. It is well known for example that the Baltic sea is heavily contaminated with heavy metals due to the presence of heavy industry in the landmass surrounding it that have used the sea as a sink for industrial waste for many years. This involves feeding shrimp excrement to microorganisms which in turn are consumed by the shrimp as a source of protein. For example, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an important pulse grown and consumed in East and West African countries. La langue anglaise ne possde qu'un seul terme, biofuel, qui peut tre galement retrouv dans des textes francophones. PMC legacy view The amino acids aspartic and glutamic acids constitute a large proportion of the amino acids of brown seaweeds (2244% of total amino acids in some brown algal species). Les microalgues procaryotes (organismes unicellullaires sans noyau, ni organelles) regroupent l'ensemble des cyanobactries [4] (anciennement appeles algues bleues ).Microalgues et nergies renouvelables. It was shown that microalgae reduced 57.4% of eutrophication problems, 22.6% of ozone, and 2.7% of global warming . Several recent publications highlight the potential of this resource as a source of bioactive peptides [89], lipids [90] and small molecules/nutrients including vitamins and minerals [91]. A supply of high quality fluid milk, underpinned by quality control systems, is required to make viable any development in processing infrastructure (membrane, evaporation and drying equipment) for the manufacture of high value protein ingredients which could be traded globally. [75] in relation to insect-based and traditional products. Further developments in industrial scale bioreactors are necessary. Nonaka K. Feasting on insects, invited review. Novel proteins require the development of new value chains, and attention to issues such as production costs, food safety, scalability and consumer acceptance. The first assumes the entire global population will consume protein at the highest rate at which it is currently being consumed by a population (103 g/hd/day) and the other assumes the entire global population will consume protein at a level which is considered to be adequate for the average sedentary adult. Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. An example of a food safety scandal was the adulteration of milk in China (in the media in 2008) with the compound melamine. Most insects are, however, still collected from their natural environment (usually forests), which restricts supply according to season and location [78]. At present, microalgae are largely targeted for their EPA/DHA content and are sold as health foods, as cosmetics or as animal feed [82]. Current costs are estimated to be in the region of $11. The authors used a system boundary covering the dairy, the farm, and transportation through to processing. Biofuel Basics Biopower Basics Bioproduct Basics Microalgae; Urban wood waste; Food waste; Biomass is a versatile renewable energy source. Les microalgues procaryotes. Jongema Y. Wageningen Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University; [(accessed on 2 March 2017)]. Gangopadhyay N., Wynne K., OConnor P., Gallagher E., Brunton N.P., Rai D.K., Hayes M. In silico and in vitro analysis of the angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory activity of hydrolysates generated from crude barley (. Jansen G.R., DiMaio L.R., Hause N.L. Rutherfurd S.M., Moughan P.J. USDA National Nutrient Dabase For Standard Reference for What We Eat in America, NHANES (Survey-SR) [(accessed on 27 March 2017)]; Alonso R., Aguirre A., Marzo F. Effects of extrusion and traditional processing methods on antinutrients and in vitro digestibility of protein and starch in faba and kidney beans. Factors that influence the potential of various current and future protein supply sources are considered below. will also be available for a limited time. All of these activities need to be developed simultaneously, resulting in costs and risks. Illgner P., Nel E. The Geography of Edible Insects in Sub-Saharan Africa: A study of the Mopane Caterpillar. A big issue with the development of in vitro meat products is the complexity of factors which contribute to the final eating quality of real meat. Breeding for Quality Traits in Grain Legumes. There are ethical issues associated with this as around 12 million hectares of land outside Europe is required to produce protein-rich meal for European livestock production [10]. United Nations 2015 Revision of World Population Prospects, United Nations. This is for pragmatic reasons including the fact that they have established production and supply systems, are important economic sectors in rural areas and provide additional economic benefits in developing countries, their use is well established in consumers routines and practices and animal-based protein, in particular, has a significant role in diets, lifestyles and culture. [50] conclude that moderate consumption of meat is better for the environment compared to a vegan and vegetarian diet. Indeed, over a third of 1834 years old in North America claim to be trying to consume as much protein as possible, whilst FAO research [8] highlights the staggering growth expected in demand for poultry in South East Asia (725% increase between 2000 and 2030), which is primarily attributed to increasing per capita consumption rates rather than increasing population levels. It can be converted into liquid transportation fuels that are equivalent to fossil-based fuels, such as gasoline, jet, and diesel fuel. After slaughter, there are a series of events including glycolysis, calcium release, energy utilization, rigor onset, oxidation and denaturation, and enzyme effects, which all impact on the ultimate eating quality. Insects vary considerably in fat, and thus energy levels, with some insects recorded as having 77 g/100 g dry weight. Bioethanol derived from biomass contributed 1014% of The protein content of seaweeds also varies depending on the geographical location of harvest and the season of harvest. Cunsolo V., Muccilli V., Saletti R., Foti S. Mass spectrometry in the proteome analysis of mature cereal kernels. When made from seaweed (macroalgae) it can be known as seaweed fuel or seaweed oil.It is also carbon negative unless the dead plant matter is From an environmental perspective, dairy production/processing systems have been reviewed and the carbon footprint determined [54,55]. This research supports a case for the transformation of the food system, whereby livestock become vehicles to use resources (i.e., grass and food by-products) that cannot otherwise be used for food production, rather than being sources of high-quality protein [99]. Microalgal lipid production has attracted global attention in next-generation biofuel research. An example of this is provided by the Forum for the Future, a project which brought the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), dairy firm Volac, flavour firm Firmenich, confectionery manufacturer Hershey and the meat-free brand Quorn together under the project the Protein Challenge 2040. However, the word biofuel is usually reserved for liquid or gaseous fuels used Vegetables and fruits biomass is a resource of renewable energy with significant fuel source potential for the production of electricity and steam, fuel for consumption and laboratory solvents. In Europe, the removal of quotas in 2015 resulted in a significant increase in milk production and protein ingredient manufacture has provided an avenue for utilization of this milk pool. Studies carried out previously suggest that the method of extraction has an impact on digestibility of protein but that seaweed derived proteins are for the most part digestible and comparable to casein but the carbohydrate fraction and phlorotannins found in brown seaweeds can affect digestibility [83]. Wu G.Y., Fanzo J., Miller D.D., Pingali P., Post M.J., Steiner J.L., Thalacker-Mercer A.E. Technology advancements include advances in data-enabled technologies as well as improvements in production and processing technologies. Furthermore, fortification and food supplements mean it is easier nowadays to adopt a vegan or vegetarian dietary regime. They have two full-scale production lines in the US, with another in Brazil (capacity of 100,000 mt/year) [35]. Halloran, Roos, Eilenberg, Cerutti and Bruun (2016) [101] identify the publication of the book Edible insects: Future prospects for food and feed security [72] as a notable landmark and state that it captivated a multitude of stakeholders and successfully drew significant attention to the area [72] (p. 2). This increased demand requires significant production growth. While meat consumption carries clear health benefits, over-consumption can lead to negative health impacts. Developments in genetic selection coupled with feeding regimes of animals can be used to increase the protein content in milk, substantially increasing the yield of protein ingredients that can be manufactured. Existing protein sources are primarily hindered by their negative environmental impacts with some concerns around health. Although both hydrogen- and sugar-based biofuel production could potentially impact the use of petroleum fuels, algae have the potential to produce a number of secondary metabolites that have characteristics much closer to existing petroleum fuels. Bhler Background Report. Similarly, on-farm factors, in particular diet, can influence the flavour. The identification of appropriate comparison boundaries for novel and existing protein sources is also important as highlighted by Smetana et al. Both n-butanol and isobutanol have been studied as possible fuels. FOIA Proteins in pulses are found in the cotyledon and the embryonic axis of the seed with small amounts present in the seed coat. Algae fuel, algal biofuel, or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Brown algae such as Saccharina japonica or Laminaria jabonica (common name is Konbu) have a particularly high MSG content which is released when the seaweed is heated or softened. Announcing the launch of In Review. The drive to produce soy, to respond to the increased demand for animal protein, is associated with deforestation, and habitat loss, in South America in particular. However, given the upward trajectory of demand in such countries, Scenario 3 assumes that per capita consumption for the additional population will be the same as for developed countries. 5. Energies, 11(1), 156. doi:10.3390/en11010156 Marine plants such as seaweeds and microalgae represent a promising and novel future protein source. Some safety hazards include potential accumulation of heavy metals, high levels of iodine, and contaminants such as dioxins and pesticides [13]. The rate of technological advancement in dairy will continue to evolve and support production of high quality ingredients that will facilitate supply to meet global demand for protein. Van Zanten H.H.E., Mollenhorst H., Klootwijk C.W., van Middelaar C.E., de Boer I.J.M. Attitudes to In Vitro meat: A survey of potential consumers in the United States. Production and supply of high-quality food protein for human consumption: Sustainability, challenges, and innovations. Indeed, it has been calculated that a typical Ethiopian diet consists of 65 g of protein of which 41 g come from Teff while only 6 g come from animal protein consumption [16]. Carbon capture and utilization may offer a response to the global challenge of significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions from major stationary (industrial) emitters. Whey protein and essential amino acids promote the reduction of adipose tissue and increased muscle protein synthesis during caloric restriction-induced weight loss in elderly, obese individuals. Reform of the European Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) in 2015 (Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No. Both are collectively termed algae, however, seaweeds are complex multicellular organisms that grow in salt water or a marine environment, whereas microalgae are single celled organisms that can grow in a range of environmental conditions. The number of recombined food products will continue to grow in emerging economies and will drive demand. 1Department Agri-Food Business and Spatial Analysis, Rural Economy and Development Programme, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin D15 KN3K, Ireland, 2Food BioSciences Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin D15 KN3K, Ireland; ei.csagaet@seyaH.airaM, 3Food Quality and Sensory Science, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin D15 KN3K, Ireland; ei.csagaet@nelluM.ennA, 4Teagasc Food Research Programme, Teagasc Food Research Centres, Ashtown and Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork P61 C996, Ireland; ei.csagaet@noleneF.kraM, 5Food Chemistry and Technology Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin D15 KN3K, Ireland; ei.csagaet@irawiT.hsejirB. Fish and shellfish consumption has several reported health effects including decreased risk of heart diseases, inflammation and arthritis. When comparing existing and novel sources of proteins and developing an overall strategy to address protein demand and thus to reflect prioritized sources, it is important that a balanced and holistic perspective is adopted as the story with respect to individual protein sources is equivocal. Protein from meat is an excellent source of essential amino acids and has high net protein utilization and digestibility [38]. These can have a myriad of positive health effects if consumed in appropriate concentrations and bioavailable within the human body. Rossi-Fanelli A., Antonini E., Brunori M., Bruzzesi M., Caputo A., Satrani K. Isolation of a monodisperse fraction from cottonseeds. Such efficiency strategies are reported to have the potential to result in a reduction of up to 30% in GHG emissions from the livestock sector, if applied globally [99]. Nonetheless, food products are available on the market including cricket protein bars produced by British company Next Step Foods, and are on the shelves in European supermarkets including the Belgian supermarkets Delhaize and Carrefour. Which scenario is most likely is dependent on the balance between competing forces that promote and restrict protein consumption. This ranges from 61% in Mesoamerica, 45% in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), 29% in the Andean region, 21% in West and Central Africa (WCA), to 4% in South Asia [17]. Agarwal S., Beausire R.L.W., Patel S., Patel H. Innovative uses of milk protein concentrates in product development. En les cultivant Both are collectively termed algae, however, seaweeds are complex multicellular organisms that grow in salt water or a marine environment, whereas microalgae are single celled organisms that can grow in a range of environmental conditions. Hayes M., Mora L., Hussey K., Aluko R.E. Seaweeds can be harvested from the sea but are also increasingly cultivated. Technical challenges remain with the production of in vitro meat. A recent study by Finnegan et al., 2017 [54] applied environmental lifecycle assessment to estimate global warming potential (GWP) of manufacture of a range of dairy products. Quorn is the most well-known of these. Furthermore, changing consumption patterns is a slow cultural process so, while demand size initiatives may be part of the solution in the longer term, for the short to medium term, more rapid changes are likely to originate from the supply side. Abbey L., Glover-Amengor M., Atikpo M.O., Atter A., Toppe J. Nutrient content of fish powder from low value fish and fish by-products. Using 1997 as the base year, Rosegrant, Paiser, Meijer and Witcover [31] expect the quantity of meat demanded by consumers in developing countries to double by the year 2020. consumption levels, 5: Entire population at level required for sedentary adult. Seaweeds could also be used in aquaculture diets or as animal feeds. This paper outlines some potential demand scenarios and provides an overview of selected existing and novel protein sources in terms of their potential to sustainably deliver protein for the future, considering drivers and challenges relating to nutritional, environmental, and technological and market/consumer domains. The infant formula sector has particularly stringent quality specifications, including microbial specifications and chemical residues (e.g., veterinary drug residues). mutant using multi-omics profiling. Soy, for example, is an important source of protein, however 85% of its production is used to feed animals and fish [29]. Crickets, lesser mealworm and yellow mealworm are potential insects for application for food in the EU while black soldier fly, yellow mealworm and the common housefly have potential for use in feed products [13]. ), are already considered as sea vegetables in countries such as France, and have consumer acceptance. Health effects include control of blood pressure through inhibition of enzymes within the renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS), maintenance of bone health, control of inflammation (antioxidant peptides), mental health through the action of opioid peptides and platelet activating factor acetyl-hydrolase inhibitory (PAF-AH) peptides) and several other bioactivities [92]. The market for Greek-style yoghurt has expanded in the US, driven by the need for new consumer platforms for consumption of protein. In many regions of the world, pulses are the major source of protein in the diet, and often represent a necessary supplement to other protein sources. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which (fat-rich) varieties of algae is an ongoing research topic. In addition to use in animal feed, seaweed protein and peptides can impart taste to foods or when used as food ingredients. The U.S. Department of Energy is working with the U.S. Department of Transportation, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and other federal government agencies to develop a comprehensive strategy for scaling up new technologies to produce sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) on a commercial scale. While there are concerns in some countries that the agrifood system is becoming more opaque [80], the future agri-food system will need to play an active role in helping consumers make healthier and more sustainable food choices [31]. Announcing the launch of In Review. Authors choosing this free optional service will be able to: Land use is also a concern; for example, in the EU two thirds of total agricultural area is used for livestock production and around 75% of protein-rich animal feed is imported from South America using large tracts of land there also [2]. Microalgae used for human consumption include Arthrospira spp. The new PMC design is here! Fleurence J. Seaweed proteins; biochemical, nutritional aspects and potential uses. Vegetables and fruits biomass is a resource of renewable energy with significant fuel source potential for the production of electricity and steam, fuel for consumption and laboratory solvents. Advances in production technologies, including technologies such as advanced monitoring systems (e.g., biomass monitoring and harvest monitoring) and remote sensing, and biological innovations in genomics and plant breeding will improve input efficiencies and help to anticipate and thus mitigate production risks (e.g., weather and pest related risks). 2010;49(8):3516-3526. The bovine protein a-lactalbumin increases the plasma ratio of tryptophan to the other large neutral amino acids, and in vulnerable subjects raises brain serotonin activity, reduces cortisol concentration, and improves mood under stress. Imram Khan K. Fluid Dynamic Modelling of bubble column reactor. While global demand for protein is clear, predicting equilibrium between supply and demand for dairy protein is complicated by differences in rate at which intra- and inter-country milk production systems develop. The Cyanobacteria and Microalgae: Thermoeconomic Considerations in Biofuel Production. For example, in South Asian mixed dairy farming systems, feasible improvements in feed quality, animal health and husbandry could reduce GHG emissions by 38% of the base line emissions while for dairy mixed systems in OECD countries adoption of improved manure management systems, feed supplementation and energy saving equipment could reduce emissions by 1417% of the baseline [52]. Negative social outcomes are also associated with aquaculture in countries where there are weak regulatory frameworks and there is concern about emerging diseases and disease transmission as a result of increased intensification and globalisation [35]. [(accessed on 12 March 2017)]; Uauy R., Waage J. Thus, not only will the amount of food required change, the type of foods demanded, and their relative contribution to diets, will change. Received 2017 Jun 28; Accepted 2017 Jul 13. Fish have a high protein content compared to terrestrial animal meat and have a lower feed conversion rate (FCR) than land animals and more protein can be produced using this lower feed rate from fish [83]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) report [41] suggested processed meat should be classified as carcinogenic to humans (every 50 g portion of processed meat increases risk of colorectal cancer by 18%). Target V.M., Arnold T.M. The development of suitable vegetal protein products, which are accepted by consumers as preferred food items that compete with animal protein products rather than being positioned as imitations or extenders of animal protein products, is however required for a major shift to occur in the utilisation of plant-based protein. However, overall, in the foreseeable future, technological development will continue to position plant-based protein as a desirable option from a sustainability perspective. Schader C., Muller A., Sciaballa N.E.-H., Hecht J., Isensee A., Erb K.-H., Smith P., Makkar H.P.S., Klocke P., Leiber F., et al. Products obtained by using a blend of cereal and pulses can balance the amino acids and may improve the nutritive value of the product. A perspective on disgust. Anne Maria Mullen wrote Section 3.2. Breeding, management, and nutrition efforts have led to significant increases in feed conversion efficiency, per-animal yields and decreases in GHG emissions per kg of animal product [92]. The protein content of seaweeds differs according to species. Tropical grain legumes as important human foods. It contains approximately 170 species of succulent plants, shrubs and trees (some are deciduous, like Careers. Beetles are the most commonly consumed insects (31%), followed by caterpillars (18%); bees, wasps and ants (14%); grasshoppers, locusts and crickets (13%); cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects and true bugs (10%); termites (3%); dragonflies (3); flies (2%); and others (5%) [72].